Spatial distribution of macroalgae along the shores of Kongsfjorden (West Spitsbergen) using acoustic imaging

AbstractThe identification of macroalgal beds is a crucial component for the description of fjord ecosystems. Direct, biological sampling is still the most popular investigation technique but acoustic methods are becoming increasingly recognized as a very efficient tool for the assessment of benthic communities. In 2007 we carried out the first acoustic survey of the littoral areas in Kongsfjorden. A 2.68 km2area comprised within a 12.40 km2euphotic zone was mapped along the fjord’s coast using single- and multi-beam echosounders. The singlebeam echosounder (SBES) proved to be a very efficient and reliable tool for macroalgae detection in Arctic conditions. The multibeam echosounder (MBES) was very useful in extending the SBES survey range, even though it’s ability in discriminating benthic communities was limited. The final result of our investigation is a map of the macroalgae distribution around the fjord, showing 39% macroalgae coverage (1.09 km2) of investigated area between isobaths -0.70 m and -30 m. Zonation analysis showed that most of the studied macroalgae areas occur up to 15 m depth (93%). These results were confirmed by biological sampling and observation in key areas. The potential of acoustic imaging of macrophytes, and a proposed methodology for the processing of acoustic data, are presented in this paper along with preliminary studies on the acoustic reflectivity of macroalgae, also highlighting differences among species. These results can be applied to future monitoring of the evolution of kelp beds in different areas of the Arctic, and in the rest of the world.</jats:p

Primary producers and production in Hornsund and Kongsfjorden - Comparison of two fjord systems

Hornsund and Kongsfjorden are two similar-sized Arctic fjords on the West coast of Spitsbergen. They are influenced by cold coastal Arctic water (Hornsund) and warmer Atlantic water (Kongsfjorden). Environmental conditions affect the timing, quantity, spatial distribution (horizontal and vertical) of spring and summer blooms of protists as well as the taxonomic composition of those assemblages. Here, we compile published data and unpublished own measurement from the past two decades to compare the environmental factors and primary production in two fjord systems. Kongsfjorden is characterized by a deeper euphotic zone, higher biomass and greater proportion of autotrophic species. Hornsund seems to obtain more nutrients due to the extensive seabird colonies and exhibits higher turbidity compared to Kongsfjorden. The annual primary production in the analysed fjords ranges from 48 g C m-2 y-1 in Kongsfjorden to 216 g C m-2 y-1 in Hornsund, with a dominant component of microplankton (90%) followed by macrophytes and microphytobenthos

Seasonality of occurrence and recruitment of Arctic marine benthic invertebrate larvae in relation to environmental variables

The Arctic system is one of the regions most influenced by ongoing global climate change, but there are still critical gaps in our knowledge regarding a substantial number of biological processes. This is especially true for processes taking place during the Arctic winter but also for seasonal processes, such as the dynamics of intra-annual meroplankton occurrence. Here, we report on a 1-year study of meroplankton seasonal variability from a fjordic system in the Arctic Archipelago of Svalbard. The study combines an examination of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and hard bottom benthic settlement with measurements of environmental parameters (e.g., water temperature, particulate organic matter, and dissolved organic carbon). Samples were taken on a bi-weekly or monthly basis, and a total of 11 taxa representing six phyla of meroplankton were recorded over a 1-year period from January to December 2007. The occurrence of benthic larvae varied between the seasons, reaching a maximum in both abundance and taxon richness in late spring through early summer. Meroplanktonic larvae were absent in winter. However, settlement of benthic organisms was also recorded during the winter months (February and March), which indicates individual trade-offs related to timing of reproduction and competition. In addition, it suggests that these larvae are not relying on higher summer nutrient concentrations, but instead are dependent on alternative food sources. In parallel with meroplankton abundance, all other measured parameters, both biological (e.g., phyto- and zooplankton abundance and diversity) and physical (e.g., particulate organic matter), exhibited seasonal variability with peaks in the warmer months of the year

A survey-based assessment of seagrass status, management and legislation in Europe

Seagrass meadows are ranked amongst the most productive ecosystems on Earth, providing high-value ecosystem services in coastal areas. Yet, seagrass habitats are declining worldwide at an unprecedented rate as a consequence of both anthropogenic and natural pressures, which suggests an inefficient management. Seagrasses are widespread along European coasts and the knowledge on their conservation status and management has been increased in the last decade although an overall view for the whole Europe is lacking. The general aim of this survey-based study was to assess the present status of seagrass habitat conservation, management and legislation in Europe based on the expert judgement of 25 participants from 19 coastal European countries. We specifically assessed the seagrass ecological status and their major threats; the level of awareness; the effort in mapping, monitoring and restoration; and the state of management plans and policy in each country. We furthermore reviewed the legislation for seagrass habitats in order to assess the protection status of seagrasses in Europe. The survey-based assessment revealed great differences among seagrass species and countries regarding their awareness, ecological status, mapping, monitoring and management. Several good examples of seagrass management, in cooperation with scientists, were identified although many countries still lack the fundamental tools for a proper management. A consistent body of legislation was compiled for most European countries, yet their implementation was reported to be rather variable and weak. The results of this study will provide guidelines for a more effective seagrass management and policy in Europe.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Carbon export in the seasonal sea ice zone north of Svalbard from winter to late summer

Phytoplankton blooms in the Arctic Ocean's seasonal sea ice zone are expected to start earlier and occur further north with retreating and thinning sea ice cover. The current study is the first compilation of phytoplankton bloom development and fate in the seasonally variable sea ice zone north of Svalbard from winter to late summer, using short-term sediment trap deployments. Clear seasonal patterns were discovered, with low winter and pre-bloom phytoplankton standing stocks and export fluxes, a short and intense productive season in May and June, and low Chl a standing stocks but moderate carbon export fluxes in the autumn post-bloom conditions. We observed intense phytoplankton blooms with Chl a standing stocks of >350 mg m−2 below consolidated sea ice cover, dominated by the prymnesiophyte Phaeocystis pouchetii. The largest vertical organic carbon export fluxes to 100 m, of up to 513 mg C m−2 day−1, were recorded at stations dominated by diatoms, while those dominated by P. pouchetii recorded carbon export fluxes up to 310 mg C m−2 day−1. Fecal pellets from krill and copepods contributed a substantial fraction to carbon export in certain areas, especially where blooms of P. pouchetii dominated and Atlantic water advection was prominent. The interplay between the taxonomic composition of protist assemblages, large grazers, distance to open water, and Atlantic water advection was found to be crucial in determining the fate of the blooms and the magnitude of organic carbon exported out of the surface water column. Previously, the marginal ice zone was considered the most productive region in the area, but our study reveals intense blooms and high export events in ice-covered waters. This is the first comprehensive study on carbon export fluxes for under-ice phytoplankton blooms, a phenomenon suggested to have increased in importance under the new Arctic sea ice regime

A red tide in the pack ice of the Arctic Ocean

Source at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-45935-0. In the Arctic Ocean ice algae constitute a key ecosystem component and the ice algal spring bloom a critical event in the annual production cycle. The bulk of ice algal biomass is usually found in the bottom few cm of the sea ice and dominated by pennate diatoms attached to the ice matrix. Here we report a red tide of the phototrophic ciliate Mesodinium rubrum located at the ice-water interface of newly formed pack ice of the high Arctic in early spring. These planktonic ciliates are not able to attach to the ice. Based on observations and theory of fluid dynamics, we propose that convection caused by brine rejection in growing sea ice enabled M. rubrum to bloom at the ice-water interface despite the relative flow between water and ice. We argue that red tides of M. rubrum are more likely to occur under the thinning Arctic sea ice regime

Tidewater glaciers and bedrock characteristics control the phytoplankton growth environment in a fjord in the arctic

Meltwater discharge from tidewater glaciers impacts the adjacent marine environment. Due to the global warming, tidewater glaciers are retreating and will eventually terminate on land. Yet, the mechanisms through which meltwater runoff and subglacial discharge from tidewater glaciers influence marine primary production remain poorly understood, as data in close proximity to glacier fronts are scarce. Here, we show that subglacial meltwater discharge and bedrock characteristics of the catchments control the phytoplankton growth environment inside the fjord, based on data collected in close proximity to tidewater glacier fronts in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard from 26 to 31 July 2017. In the southern part of the inner fjord, glacial meltwater from subglacial discharge was rich in fine sediments derived from erosion of Devonian Old Red Sandstone and carbonate rock deposits, limiting light availability for phytoplankton (0.6 mg m−3 Chl a on average, range 0.2–1.9 mg m−3). In contrast, coarser sediments derived from gneiss and granite bedrock and lower subglacial discharge rates were associated with more favourable light conditions facilitating a local phytoplankton bloom in the northern part of the inner fjord with mean Chl a concentration of 2.8 mg m−3 (range 1.3–7.4 mg m−3). In the northern part, glacier meltwater was a direct source of silicic acid through weathering of the silica-rich gneiss and granite bedrock. Upwelling of the subglacial freshwater discharge plume at the Kronebreen glacier front in the southern part entrained large volumes of ambient, nutrient-rich bottom waters which led to elevated surface concentrations of ammonium, nitrate, and partly silicic acid. Total dissolved inorganic nitrogen transported to the surface with the upwelling of the subglacial discharge plume has a significant potential to enhance summer primary production in Kongsfjorden, with ammonium released from the seafloor being of particular importance. The transition from tidewater to land-terminating glaciers may, thus, reduce the input of nutrients to the surface layer with negative consequences for summer productivity.publishedVersio

Floating Ice-Algal Aggregates below Melting Arctic Sea Ice

During two consecutive cruises to the Eastern Central Arctic in late summer 2012, we observed floating algal aggregates in the melt-water layer below and between melting ice floes of first-year pack ice. The macroscopic (1-15 cm in diameter) aggregates had a mucous consistency and were dominated by typical ice-associated pennate diatoms embedded within the mucous matrix. Aggregates maintained buoyancy and accumulated just above a strong pycnocline that separated meltwater and seawater layers. We were able, for the first time, to obtain quantitative abundance and biomass estimates of these aggregates. Although their biomass and production on a square metre basis was small compared to ice-algal blooms, the floating ice-algal aggregates supported high levels of biological activity on the scale of the individual aggregate. In addition they constituted a food source for the ice-associated fauna as revealed by pigments indicative of zooplankton grazing, high abundance of naked ciliates, and ice amphipods associated with them. During the Arctic melt season, these floating aggregates likely play an important ecological role in an otherwise impoverished near-surface sea ice environment. Our findings provide important observations and measurements of a unique aggregate-based habitat during the 2012 record sea ice minimum yea

Seasonal plankton dynamics in Kongsfjorden during two years of contrasting environmental conditions

Seasonal plankton time-series data are presented from Kongsfjorden from two years with contrasting environmental conditions. Kongsfjorden (west coast of Spitsbergen – 79°N) integrates inputs from Atlantic and Arctic waters, and glacier run-off, and is thus a prime location to study impacts on ecosystem dynamics of key environmental drivers that are relevant across the Arctic. Despite extensive research in Kongsfjorden, seasonally-resolved data are scarce. From late April/early May to early September 2019 and 2020, we conducted pelagic sampling at a mid-fjord station at mostly weekly to bi-weekly resolution investigating the environmental drivers of phyto- and zooplankton community composition and phenology. During spring 2019, Atlantic water masses with temperatures > 1 °C were found throughout the upper 250 m of the water column, and little sea ice occurred in the fjord. Spring 2020, in turn, was characterized by the presence of local water masses with sub-zero temperatures and relatively extensive sea-ice cover. The most striking contrast between the two years was the difference in phytoplankton spring bloom composition. In 2019, the spring bloom was dominated by the colonial stage of the haptophyte Phaeocystis pouchetii and diatoms played a minor role, while the spring bloom in 2020 was dominated by diatoms of the genus Thalassiosira succeeded by P. pouchetii. Selective grazing by large copepods and water mass structure seem to have been the decisive factors explaining the marked difference in diatom spring bloom biomass between the years while similar spring abundances of P. pouchetii in both years indicated that this species was less impacted by those factors. Our data suggest that differences in spring bloom composition impacted trophic transfer and carbon export. Recruitment of the dominant copepods Calanus finmarchicus and C. glacialis, Cirripedia and euphausiid larvae as well as the export of carbon to the seabed was more efficient during the diatom-dominated compared to the P. pouchetii–dominated spring bloom. In summer, the plankton composition shifted towards a flagellate-dominated community characterized by mixo- and heterotrophic taxa adapted to a lower nutrient regime and strong top-down control by copepod grazers. However, residual silicic acid after the P. pouchetii–dominated spring bloom fueled a late summer diatom bloom in 2019. Our data provide a first glimpse into the environmental drivers of plankton phenology and underline that high-resolution monitoring over many annual cycles is required to resolve the ephemeral variations of plankton populations against the backdrop of climate change.publishedVersio

The seeding of ice algal blooms in Arctic pack ice: The multiyear ice seed repository hypothesis

Source at http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2016JG003668 During the Norwegian young sea ICE expedition (N-ICE2015) from January to June 2015 the pack ice in the Arctic Ocean north of Svalbard was studied during four drifts between 83° and 80°N. This pack ice consisted of a mix of second year, fi rst year, and young ice. The physical properties and ice algal community composition was investigated in the three different ice types during the winter-spring-summer transition. Our results indicate that algae remaining in sea ice that survived the summer melt season are subsequently trapped in the upper layers of the ice column during winter and may function as an algal seed repository. Once the connectivity in the entire ice column is established, as a result of temperature-driven increase in ice porosity during spring, algae in the upper parts of the ice are able to migrate toward the bottom and initiate the ice algal spring bloom. Furthermore, this algal repository might seed the bloom in younger ice formed in adjacent leads. This mechanism was studied in detail for the dominant ice diatom Nitzschia frigida . The proposed seeding mechanism may be compromised due to the disappearance of older ice in the anticipated regime shift toward a seasonally ice-free Arctic Ocean